literature+review

In the previous chapter, we have explained the fundamentals of the PPSMI including current argument on its abolishment and its reverting to Bahasa Malaysia. To provide a clearer understanding of this study, we will thus discuss a few issues that consistently envelope the discussion of learning English. We will explain the concepts of language learning, teaching English quality, interaction and second language learning, high school student’s English learning anxiety, motivation for children in learning English. When children learn all new information and skills in English, their first language becomes abandoned because it does not keep up with their new knowledge. This may lead to limited bilingualism, where children never become truly accomplished in either their first or second language. Supporting only English also gives children the impression that different languages and cultures are not valued. On cognitive and academic measures, children who have lost their first language do not score as well as children who have maintained or expanded their first language as they acquire the second language (additive bilinguals) (Collier, 1992; Ramsey, 1987; Saville-Troike, 1982). When the first language continues to be supported and this support is especially important when the first language is not the power language outside the home, introducing a second language between the ages of 5 and 11 will ensure full cognitive growth in the first language, which will support full cognitive growth in the second language (Collier, 1995). Teacher evolving development is impor­tant part of enhancing quality of teaching. A fundamental approach to teacher development, which refers to deeper understanding of teach­er’s beliefs, theories, principles, and attitudes, allows to examine teachers’ practices and make informed decisions about one’s own teaching (Gebhard, Oprandy 1999). Teacher evaluation and self-evaluation are the basis of good educa­tional practice. Evaluation is a complex process and includes a series of activities and actions. “Teachers have to be evaluated as profession­als. The emphasis of teacher evaluation should be on their teaching and not individuals and take into account the involvement and understanding of people involved in the education process. The purpose of teacher evaluation is to protect and improve the quality of instruction received by students by fostering self-develop­ment “(Nunan, Lamb 1996). Interaction is the key to the second language learning. Ellis (1985) defined interaction as the discourse jointly constructed by the learner and his discussion and input is the result of the interaction. As cited in Ellis (1994) the necessary requirement for the second language is interaction. There are three aspects of verbal interaction can be distinguished: input, production and feedback. The studies of the second language have been conducted with the role of input and interaction in both the natural and classroom setting. Gass and Varonis (1994) have found that native speaker modifications are more frequent in two-way communication because conversation provides the native speaker with feedback from the learner and thus enables him to estimate the amount of adjustment required. Ellis (1994) interaction hypothesis emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input and claims that it is most effective when it is modified. Hatch (1983) suggested that a foreigner's speech has the same basic functions whereby it promotes communication, establishes an affective bond between native speaker and learner. The second language is acquired through sporadic and unsystematic social interaction with the wide society. Anxiety, simply speaking, is a kind of troubled feeling in the mind. (Horwitz, 1986) it is a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automatic nervous system. Scovel (1978) trait anxiety refers to “a more permanent predisposition to be anxious” while (Brown, 2001) state and situation-specific anxiety are usually experienced in relation to some particular event or situation. (Young, 1991) there are six potential causes of language anxiety which include personal and interpersonal, learner beliefs about language learning, instructor beliefs about language teaching, instructor-learner interactions, classroom procedures and language tests. (Horwitz and Cope, 1986) identified three causes of language anxiety, that is, communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. (Alpert and Haber, 1960) the effect of anxiety on learning, an important insight to which we can refer is the distinction between debilitative and facilitative anxiety. (Horwitz,1986) also asserted that language anxiety can cause students to postpone language study indefinitely or to change majors. (MacIntyre and Gardner,1994), based on a study of 97 college students, concluded that compared with more relaxed learners, those with anxiety find it more difficult to express their own views and tend to underestimate their own abilities. (Bailey,1983) study of competitiveness and anxiety, it was found that facilitative anxiety was one of the keys to success, and closely related to competitiveness. (Zhang Baoyan,1996) study of English learners in Taiwan, the results showed that there was no relationship between anxiety and learning achievement. When it comes to English lessons, it is important to connect the activities that are done in the classroom to communication in the real world. Learning English embedded in meaningful and natural contexts may enhance children’s motivation. In order to improve motivation, it is essential to encourage pupils to have clear and specific goals in the classroom. As has been said above, flow experience usually happens when there are clear goals one can reach (Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde, 1993). Besides, it is essential to provide clear and concrete goals to pupils in each English lesson. When they achieve the goals each time, they may be able to feel a sense of mastery. Another approach for improving motivation involves promoting perceptions of autonomy. Ryan, Connell and Deci (1985) say that there might be a shift from extrinsic control to self-regulation under certain conditions. Children who are not initially motivated to perform can be gradually motivated. Further, intrinsic motivation derives from students feeling a sense of control over their learning environments and activities (Lepper and Hodell 1989). Moreover, it is important to provide activities that are challenging but reasonable in terms of children’s capabilities. Some researchers (Csikzentmilhalyi 1975) have suggested that pupils should be given activities that are difficult and challenging, but not outside the range of competence.
 * 2.0 Literature Review **
 * Language learning **
 * Teaching English quality **
 * Interaction and second language learning **
 * High school student’s English learning anxiety **
 * Motivation for children in learning English **